Intro by Dr. David Sorenson

Introduction: Jihad and Reconquista.

     It all started with a fit of insanity. The man afflicted was the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim; the year was 1009. In a fit of fanaticism he decided that his duty as a good Muslim was to destroy all the churches of the nonbelievers. He destroyed the fourth-century Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, the traditional site of the tomb in which the body of Christ had been buried and from which Christ rose the following Sunday. Eventually al-Hakim became more and more insane, to the point of declaring himself Allah incarnate and turning against those Muslims who disagreed; to the rest of the Islamic world his death in 1021 was "good riddance to bad rubbish" and in the short term everything was patched up to the extent that everyone was happy.

Church of the Holy Sepulchre; Photo by F. Fith, c. 1856.

     Christian pilgrims were generally welcomed in Jerusalem. The early fanaticism of Islam had died down, and the restrictions imposed in the 840s requiring Christians and Jews to wear badges, for example, were distant memories. The expansionist jihad against the Byzantine Empire had come to grief in the great siege of Constantinople in 715; since then the combination of Islamic fragmentation and weakness and Byzantine resurgence had led to something of a stalemate.

     The Fatimids looked on Western pilgrims as primarily a source of revenue. Pilgrims brought, and spent, money. It was in the interests of the Muslims to keep the pilgrims and their cash flowing in. Hence it was not merely the Christians who were appalled by al-Hakim's actions.

     By itself the destruction of the churches in Jerusalem would have meant no more than similar spasmodic acts in previous years, but for two things. First, there was the appearance of a new menace, namely one Alp Arslan of the Seljuq Turks, who swept with his army into the civilized world from the wilds of Asia; and second, there was the general resurgence of a Europe which was emerging from its "Dark Ages" and was beginning to shed its barbarian habits. Compared with the Byzantines and settled Arabs they were still barbaric, but they were a force to be reckoned with.

     The Seljuqs were a tribe of Turks who were part of the last but one wave of barbarian invaders to plague the settled nations of the Mediterranean world. From the Hittites to the Huns to the Turks and, finally, the Mongols, the plains of Asia produced fierce nomads who, expanding beyond the ability of their own lands to support them, moved out in search of greener pastures. The Seljuqs, named after a legendary founder, followed in the footsteps of related tribes who had set up petty states on the ruins of native dynasties. With all the zeal of the newly converted they destroyed Turkish, Persian and Arab states alike, regarding them as heretical. The surviving civilized Islamic states, especially the Fatimids, looked to the Byzantines as an ally against this barbarism.

     The Byzantines themselves had benefited from a remarkable improvement in military fortune since the early tenth century. This resulted from the vigor and skill of an energetic line of military Emperors fom Macedonia, but after 1025 the dynasty collapsed under a succession of aristocratic civil, as opposed to military,emperors who badly weakened the army.

     The Seljuqs were not going to be easily stopped, and in 1071 the new emperor Romanus IV Diogenes found himself having to deal with their raids by scraping together an army through hiring mercenaries. In the ensuing campaign these proved unreliable and their leaders treacherous. At Manzikert this army was destroyed and Romanus taken prisoner and later deposed on his release. Since those who deposed him were incompetent as well as treacherous and foolish, the Seljuqs overran nearly all of Asia Minor without resistance by 1080.

     The disaster only halted on the accession of a new usurper, the distinguished commander Alexius Comnenus. The very model of the "Byzantine" diplomat, he made deals with all and sundry, against Seljuqs, Normans, Bulgars and Petchinegs, all of which were trying to take advantage of the empire's weakness. By the 1090s he had succeeded in neutralizing these major threats, and was even in a position to consider expanding into Asia Minor. The Seljuq empire had proved itself a typical barbarian state, fragmenting as soon as the founder was in his grave. Accordingly Alexius made it known that he was looking to recruit troops to help him hurl the Turks back into the steppes from whence they had come, and the liberation of the Holy Land from these Turks was an added inducement.

     Meanwhile in Europe the tales of woe multiplied. A Turkish warlord had conquered Jerusalem in 1071. The Turks never quite managed to achieve stable rule; between succession-struggles and Byzantine diplomacy the Seljuq states split into petty kingdoms, each with a deadly hatred of its neighbors. As a result the pilgrim routes became unsafe for anyone without a heavily armed escort.

     The few travelers whose tales were told impressed all and sundry about how bad things were in the Holy Land. The depredations of the Turks, coming hard on those of al-Hakim, convinced many that something had to be done. At the same time the higher clergy were worried about the constant warfare raging between European rulers. The clergy hoped to channel all this military energy into something more useful than mere fratricidal strife.

The First Crusade: Motivation of the Latins

     The Pope (Urban II) duly received a summons for military aid from the Byzantine Emperor in 1094. Urban II had three reasons to help: first, and most obviously, to secure safe passage of the pilgrims to the Holy Lands. Second, to increase the status of the Church, especially in the German Empire (Henry IV had not yet realized his defeat in the "Investiture Struggle"; creating a European army under Papal control would undermine the Emperor and may divert some nobles to more worthwhile activities. Third, he hoped to find some way of repairing the East-West schism of 1054 on Roman terms; by this time cooler heads were prevailing, and the rupture was far from final.

     Some knights accepted the cross (such as Bohemund), with the hopes of carving out a fief or kingdom in the land "flowing with milk and honey". But it was not just the landed gentry and younger sons that left to seek their fortunes. Men of great wealth such as Stephen of Blois became crusaders and the poorest peasants joined (more in the style of a pilgrimage). These men were driven by the lust for glory through knightly combat or the promise of guaranteed redemption and acceptance into Heaven for all those who died on crusade. Some, like Duke Robert Cuthose mortgaged their lands to get the money necessary to outfit and support an army and join the crusade. Passage and supplies were provided (sold) by the Italian States (especially Venice) in the hopes of expanding their trade routes for Oriental goods.

Denier of Clermont, XII Century, Lot 425.

The Council of Clermont

     Urban saw in Alexius' request a great opportunity, but he looked much further than simply aiding the Byzantines. He began contacting leaders in France (Raymond of Toulouse and Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy) with the idea to rescue the Holy Land from the "infidel". He called a council at Clarmont in Auvergne in France on November 25, 1095 to discuss the matter with the French Bishops. Following the councile, he unfolded his plan to the world.

     At Clermont, in the open air, Pope Urban delivered his finest oration to the assembled masses. He began by praising the valor of the Franks. He spoke of aiding the Christian brethren in the east. Urban dwelled on the suffering of the pilgrims at the hands of the Moslem Turks and the defiling of Holy places. He spoke of the opportunity available in "the land flowing with milk and honey". He proclaimed the war a Holy War and promised absolution for all sins to those joining the cause. The crowd answered "Deus Vult" (It's God's will).

     Urban could not have imagined the success of that speech. Thousands took up the cross (sewing a cross to their garments) that day. Men and boys, women, cripples, old and young, all answered Urban's appeal. Urban tried to stay the flood of non-combatants, but he was powerless to stop the fire he kindled in their hearts.

The Peasant's (or People's) Crusade

     The religious zeal preached at Clermont could not be kept in check until the main body of the crusaders soldiers were assembled and outfitted about a year later. Several bands of poor knights and peasant pilgrims led by Peter the Hermit, Walter the Penniless and Count Enicho (the robber baron) set out in the spring of 1096. The main body of the crusade was led by Peter, whose preachings from mule-back and oath of poverty enticed many to join the crusade and made him immensely popular. They left Köln in March, 1096 and marched across Germany, Hungary, and Bulgaria down to Constantinople. In Hungary they pillaged and murdered many Jews as well as local peasants, and fought with the local troops; their indiscipline and lawlessness quickly made them detested They finally made their way to Constantinople.

     Emperor Alexius was not pleased by the arrival of the many non-combatants, but he provided them with supplies and bestowed honors upon them. He advised that they wait for the main force to arrive, but their heads were too full of their holy mission to listen to reason. They felt that they could defeat the Turks with their faith alone. They became unruly, until Alexius bended to their requests and provided them transport across the Bosporus Strait on August 6, 1096. Almost immediately, the crusader horde began to attack. Peter soon lost control of the army and returned to Alexius for help. While he was gone, the Turks assembled an army and fell on the crusaders near Civetot, killing them almost to a man. The only value in this feeble effort was that the Turks though that this rabble was a typical Frankish army, so they came to underestimate their opponents.

French Deniers used by Crusaders in the Levant as "money of necessity", XII Century, of Anjou (Lot 422) and Valence (Lot 429).

The Leaders and Their Journey to Constantinople

The leaders, as well as the troops, were drawn mainly from France. As France had no other crusade going at the time, unlike Spain (the Reconquista), Germany (operations in the East against pagan Slavs) and Hungary (fighting nomads and, later, Crusaders). As a result all Crusaders were called Franks in Arab sources, even when they were Italian or English.

     Raymond de St. Gilles, Count of Toulouse, was an old warrior who was a veteran of many campaigns in Spain. He led a large army from Provance and southern France. Robert II of Flanders marched forth with his Flemish troops. Robert Curthose, Duke of Normany (later to became a romantic ideal of chivalry) pawned his Duchy to his brother William Rufus to finance his expedition of Normans. Hugh de Vermandois, brother of King Philip I, led a small force of French knights. Stephen of Blois, the wealthy son-in-law of William the Conqueror, led a contingent of Champagnois. Godfrey de Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine, and his brother Baldwin led a large force. Lastly, Bohemund, the Norman prince of Tarento and his nephew Tancred led Robert Guiscard's forces from southern Italy. Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy was named the Papal Legate and nominal leader of the crusade.

     Godfrey was the first to leave and followed the traditional pilgrim's overland route across Germany, down the Danube, across Hungary and Bulgaria, to Constantinople. Raymond marched the largest part of the army across Italy to Venice, then down the eastern shore of the Adriatic to Durazzo, where they took the old Roman road to Constantinople. The balance of the French crusaders left Vienne, traveled to Genoa, then south through Italy to Rome. They joined with Bohemund at Bari and separately crossed the Adriatic and followed the Roman road to Constantinople.

     The armies arrived one-by-one at Constantinople. The crusaders were not a cohesive army, they were a band of enthusiasts obedient to whomever they chose. The size of the Army is a source of some debat but likely numbered around 4,000 knights and 25,000 foot soldiers. Alexius had asked for mercenaries to fight the Seljuqs but what he got was a host of crusaders determined to free the Holy Lands. Alexius trued everything to interest the crusaders in his problem with the Seljuqs threat. He tried bribery, lavish gifts and honors, and even threats. Finally he decided that he had better promise his help to the crusaders and their "holy task". In exchange for his assistance, Alexius extracted an oath from the crusader leadership that all the lands they conquered would be returned to the Empire. Tancred and Raymond refused to take the oath. In the spring of 1097, Alexius transported the crusaders, together with a division of the Byzantine Army into Asia Minor. The crusade was finally ready for action.

Campaigns in Anatolia

     From May to June, 1097, the combined Crusader-Byzantine army besieged Nicaea. The city of Nicaea was an ancient and wealthy fotified city on the Bosporus. The large Latin force and the Byzantine army, led by Taticius, besieged the city for two months. On the eve of a planned assault by the crusaders, Nicaea surrendered to Tacticius. It seemed that Tacticius had negotiated in secret with the city to surrender to the Byzantines and save being sacked by the Crusaders. The crusaders were enraged for the lack of trust and loss of booty for their efforts. The crusaders never fully trusted the Byzantines from that time on.

     The crusader army pushed overland to Antioch, while the Byzantine garrisoned Nicaea lessening the threat of a Seljuq attack on Constantinople. The crusaders split their forces to make scavenging for food and supplies easier. On July 1, 1097, Bohemund with half the crusader forces met a large Turkish army at Dorylaeum. Bohemund did not lose his head. Although severely outnumbered, he skillfully deployed his army to withstand the inevitable assault. But is was the unexpected return of the other half of the crusader army which surprised and surrounded the Turks and carried the day. The defeat of the Turkish army was complete. Soon the crusaders gained the reputation as invincible.

Æ Fals of Edessa, Baldwin II, 1108-1118. Very Rare. Struck over Mirdasis dirhem; some Arabic legends visible. Lot 505.

Establishment of the County of Edessa

     While the main body of the crusader army pushed through the Taurus pass towards Antioch, Tancred and Baldwin separately went into Cilicia to conquer kingdoms for themselves. Tancred besieged Tarsus and had all but won it when Baldwin appeared an accepted the city's surrender. Tancred angrily returned to the main army but Baldwin proceeded to Edessa where he entered into the court intrigue. There he was adopted by Thoros, the Armenian, who mysteriously died later that week. Baldwin was proclaimed Count of Edessa on Easter, 1098 and the first of the Crusader States was established.

The Siege (and Counter-Siege) of Antioch

     Meanwhile, the main army was laying siege to the powerful city of Antioch. Antioch was a huge city with elaborate walls and numerous towers to defend the city. It was impossible to completely surround the city due to the mountainous terrain making a siege ineffective. Still the crusaders besieged the city for over seven months from October 20, 1097 to June 3, 1098.

     Throughout the latter part of the siege, the crusader army was critically short of food. The crusaders knew that Karbaqa, the governor of Mosul, was advancing with a large army and his arrival would spell their defeat. The council of Barons sent Hugh to go to Alexius and obtain his support in exchange for the city of Antioch.

     After Hugh had left to get summon the Byzantine army, Bohemund had secretly learned that the captain of the Tower of the Two Sisters, Firouz, had tired of the conflict and was willing to let the Crusaders into the city for considerations. Bohemund kept this new secret and suggested at the next council that the city be given to whomever could find a way to defeat the walls. The Barons agreed thinking it an unlikely proposition. Through this treachery, the crusaders captured the city, but the citadel held out.

     The next day, Karbaqa arrived and besieged the crusaders in the city. The crusader army was trapped in a city with very little food and no civilian support and could not hold out long. Several mass desertions, most notably by Stephen of Blois, undermined the crusader's morale. There main hope was the arrival of Alexius with the Byzantine army to relive the siege. But when Stephen met Alexius advancing on Antioch, he claimed that the city had already fallen (to hide his shame) and the Byzantines turned back.

     The crusader morale was at an absolute low when a "miracle" occurred. Peter Bartholomew had a revelation that the Holy Lance (the Lance used by the Romans to pierce Christ's side as he was being crucified when they found it difficult to believe that he had died so quickly) was buried in the city. Raymond decided to explore and indeed found the Holy Lance (or rather a Holy Lance, since the Byzantines had their own version). The finding of the Lance restored the crusader confidence and on June 29, 1098 they left the city to engage Karbarqa in open combat.

     Whether it was the Holy Lance or the tactical genius of Bohemund, the crusaders won a most unlikely victory. Hearing of Karbaqa's defeat, the citadel surrendered to Raymond. In August, Adhemar died during an epidemic in the city, leaving the crusade without an anointed leader. The Latin leaders debated the disposition of Antioch for some time. Raymond realized that he did not have enough support to claim Antioch for himself, so he claimed it for Alexius. Bohemund stacked his claim based on the agreement of the Council of Barons and his part in the victory over Karbaqa's forces. But Alexius and the Byzantine army did not arrive and Raymond's claim withered.

     Having achieved this objective the army began to disintegrate. Raymond immediately set out for Jerusalem, but the wealthy city of Tripoli caught his eye, and he besieged several smaller cities. Others remained in Antioch still discussing its leadership. Finally, at the insistence of Godfrey, the crusaders more-or-less united and started their march toward Jerusalem.

     In a strange way, Baldwin, by his absence, had been perhaps the most important factor in the crusader victory at Antioch. Karbaqa's army stopped for two weeks to lay siege to Edessa. If Karbaqa had not spent that time he would have arrived before the crusaders got into the city and would surely have destroyed them.

Denier of King Amaury of Jerusalem, 1163-1174, showing the objective fo which the Crusaders fought, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Lot 492.

The Fall of Jerusalem

     Finally on June 7, 1099, the crusader army reached its goal, Jerusalem. Godfrey, Raymond, Tancred, and the two Roberts surrounded the city. Baldwin had remained in Edessa and Bohemund in Antioch. Stephen and Hugh returned to France.

     Jerusalem had been very recently retaken by the Fatimids, who hoped to be left in peace. They were soon undeceived, however. The Crusader army now numbered only 1000-1500 knights and perhaps 12,000 infantry, but immediately besieged the city. The garrison was well supplied and the governor decided to wait until a relief force could be sent from Egypt.

     On July 13 seige towers were brought up to the walls and Godfrey's forces suceeded in taking a portion of the outer defenses. They opened the main gate and the crusaders stormed into the city led by Raymond and Tancred. The resulting looting escalated to massacre and in all nearly 40,000 inhabitants of the Holy City were killed that day. The killed included some of the garrison who had surrendered on terms to Tancred; he was furious. Only Raymond was able to shield his prisoners including the governor and some city officials who had surrendered the city to him. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher ran red with the blood of the fallen. The relief force from Egypt was later turned away with a surprise attack by the crusaders Once Jerusalem was liberated, the other crusaders visited the holy shrines at Jerusalem and filfulled their vows of pilgrimage.

     The question of how to govern Jerusalem remained. Raymond was tricked into declining the Kingship of Jerusalem. Thereafter, Godfrey was elected as ruler, but he refused the title of King, taking the title of Protector of the Holy Sepulcher. Upon his death a year later his brother, Baldwin, was recalled from Edessa; he was less bashful and took the title as King. In later years, Baldwin captured the cities of Arsur, Caesarea, Acre, Sidon, and Beirut to expand the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Aftermath of the Crusade and the Consolidation of the Latin East

     Bohemund tried to expand the principality of Antioch by capturing Aleppo, but was himself defeated and captured in 1100. Tancred, his nephew, served as regent of Antioch and eventually became Prince in 1104, after Bohemund was ransomed. Bohemund conducted an unsuccessful campaign against the Byzantines from 1107-1108, he returned to Europe after his defeat and died there in 1111.

     The news of the capture of Jerusalem brought a new wave of crusaders in 1101. The crusaders were led by Stephen of Blois, Stephen of Burgundy, the Count of Nevers, and Duke William of Aquitaine. This army was lost in Asia Minor trying to rescue Bohemund. Stephen of Blois died the death of a martyr and erased the blot on his honor due to his desertion at Antioch.

     Baldwin of Le Bourg inherited Edessa from his cousin Baldwin who became King Baldwin I of Jerusalem. Later he would take the Kingship of Jerusalem as Baldwin II, leaving Edessa to Joscelyn of Courtenay. Upon Baldwin II's death Fulk of Anjou married his daughter and became King of Jerusalem.

     Raymond, having so far received little reward for his efforts, set out to conquer Tripoli. In 1102 he captured Tortosa and Gibelet in 1104. Raymond built a castle outside Tripoli to make an effective siege of the city, but he died in 1105 before the city fell to his successors in 1109.

Æ of Tripoli, 1180-1200, showing the gate of the city. Lot 497.

     With the establishment of the County of Tripoli and the conquest of Tyre in 1124 with the help (costly as usual) of the Venetians, the crusaders had an almost unbroken control of the Syrian coast. However the Moslems were not going to sit idly by. In 1128 Zangi, atabeg of Mosul, proclaimed a holy war against the Franks and in 1144 they captured Edessa. The first Crusader State established was thus the first to fall. When the news hit Europe a wave of rage spred throughout Christendom. The stage was set for the second crusade.

Some References:

Brocklemann, History of the Islamic Peoples

Maalouf, Crusades through Arab Eyes

Ostrogorsky, History of the Byzantine State.

Runciman, Steven, History of the Crusades (3 vols)

Setton, Kenneth (ed), History of the Crusades (6 vols)